2025 1(48) 33

Green Steel for Post-War Ukraine

Alexandra Devlin
Dr. Eng. Sc.
e-mail: allidevlin113@hotmail.com,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom,
Vlad Mykhnenko
Dr. Political Economy, Prof. Academic Director (Social Sciences)
ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8944-0608
e-mail: vlad.mykhnenko@conted.ox.ac.uk,
Department of Continuing Education, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK,
Anastasia Zagoruichyk
ORCID https://orcid.org/0009-0009-3950-2810
e-mail: a.o.zagoruichyk@gmail.com,
Smith School of Business and Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK,
Nicholas Salmon
Dr. Eng.
ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1989-3393,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK,
Myroslava Soldak
PhD in Economics, Senior Researcher.
ORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4762-3083
e-mail: Soldak@nas.gov.ua,
Institute of Industrial Economics of the NAS of Ukraine, Kyiv

Citation Format
Devlin, A., Mykhnenko, V., Zagoruichyk, A., Salmon, N., Soldak, M. (2025). Green Steel for Post-War Ukraine. Vіsnyk ekonomіchnoі nauky Ukraіny, 1 (48), рр. 215-239. https://doi.org/10.37405/1729-7206.2025.1(48).215-239

Language
 Ukrainian

Resume
The steel industry’s clean energy transition can enable new market creation and economic growth stimulation. Yet, the most efficient and feasible pathway to decouple the sector from fossil fuels remains unclear, particularly within developing nations and unstable socio-political contexts. Here, a blueprint for reconfiguring plant locations and reallocating resources is developed through a Ukrainian case study under two scenarios, which capture potential post-war conditions. Framed by regrowth of Ukraine’s export-oriented steel industry and prospective European Union accession, green iron and steel trade strategies are devised. A steel supply chain optimisation model underpins the techno-economic, spatially granular analysis of energy and material flows, which utilises the inputs from a separate cost-minimised renewable energy, green hydrogen, and green ammonia production model. Results show that optimal supply chain configurations rely on mixed emissions-free energy profiles, the emergence of new steelmaking sites nearby high-quality renewables, regional alliances for green iron and steel market creation, and multi-billion-dollar investment. Mature nuclear and hydro power critically reduce costs in the near-term, whilst the rapid expansion of solar and wind energy infrastructure underpins production system scale-up. To simultaneously rebuild the 22 million-tonnes-a-year Ukrainian steel industry and transition to near-zero emissions by 2050, infrastructure investment surmounts to $62 billion, given full liberation of Ukrainian territory. Near-term investment is necessary to ease the pace of change, and although mobilising capital of this magnitude will be challenging, convincing carbon prices favour decarbonisation efforts.

Keywords
green steel, green iron, supply chains, energy transition, Ukraine, European Union.

Referensces

  1. Zvit pro rezultaty audytu efektyvnosti otrymannia ta vykorystannia koshtiv derzhavnoho biudzhetu, otrymanykh vidpovidno do statti 8 Zakonu Ukrainy «Pro vrehuliuvannia pytan, poviazanykh iz yadernoiu bezpekoiu» [Report on the results of the audit of the efficiency of receiving and using funds from the state budget, obtained in accordance with Article 8 of the Law of Ukraine ’On the Regulation of Issues Related to Nuclear Safety’]. (2020). Accounting Chamber of Ukraine. Retrieved from http://rp.gov.ua/upload-files/Activity/Collegium/2020/30-4_2020/Zvit_30-4_2020.pdf [in Ukrainian].
  2. Amosha, A. I., Zaloznova, Yu. S., Cherevatskyi, D. Yu. (2017). Vuhilna promyslovist i hibrydna ekonomika [Coal Industry and the Hybrid Economy].]. Kyiv: ІІЕ of NAS of Ukraine. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Danylo-Cherevatskyi/publication/329522129_Coal_industry_and_hybrid_economy_Ugolnaa_promyslennost_i_gibridnaa_ekonomika/links/5c0d404e4585157ac1b6aeb1/Coal-industry-and-hybrid-economy-Ugolnaa-promyslennost-i-gibridnaa-ekonomika.pdf [in Ukrainian].
  3. Aptekar’, S. S., Amosha, A. I. (2005). Ekonomicheskiye problemy chernoy metallurgii Ukrainy [Economic problems of ferrous metallurgy of Ukraine]. Donetsk, DonGUET. 383 р. [in Russian].
  4. Astoria, T., Hughes, G., Mizutani, N. (2022). MIDREX NG with H2 Addition: Moving from natural gas to hydrogen in decarbonizing ironmaking. Midrex. Retrieved from https://www.midrex.com/tech-article/moving-from-natural-gas-to-hydrogen-in-decarbonizing-ironmaking/.
  5. Bataille, C., Stiebert, S., Li, F. (2021). Global facility level net-zero steel pathways: technical report on the first scenarios of the Net-zero Steel Project. IDDRI. Retrieved from https://netzeroindustry.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/net_zero_steel_report.pdf.
  6. Begun, T., Velikova, V., Muresan, M., Zaharia, T., Dencheva, K., Sezgin, M., Bat, L. (2012). Conservation and Protection of the Black Sea Biodiversity. Review of the existing and planned protected areas in the Black Sea (Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey) with a special focus on possible deficiencies regarding law enforcement and implementation of management plans. EC DG Env. MISIS Project Deliverables, Ed. ExPonto. 110 p. Retrieved from https://www.rmri.ro/Home/Downloads/Publications.Deliverables/MPA_Conservation.pdf.
  7. Bhaskar, A., Abhishek, R., Assadi, M., Somehesaraei, H. N. (2022). Decarbonizing primary steel production: techno-economic assessment of a hydrogen based green steel production plant in Norway. Journal of Cleaner Production, 350, 131339. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131339.
  8. Biersack, J., O’Lear, S. (2014). The geopolitics of Russia’s annexation of Crimea: narratives, identity, silences, and energy. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 55 (3), рр. 247–269. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2014.985241.
  9. Black Iron is a TSX-listed, Canada-based company with a globally top-ranked iron ore project in Ukraine. (2023). Black Iron. Retrieved from https://blackiron.com/project-overview/.
  10. A DFI for the reconstruction of Ukraine – overview. (2023). BlackRock. Retrieved from https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/621f88db25fbf24758792dd8/64931249dc66515444cf9379_BlackRock_FMA_Ukraine_Development_Fund_DFI_for_the_reconstruction.pdf.
  11. Boiko, I. (2022). Metalurhy zalyshaiutsia odnymy z naibilshykh platnykiv podatkiv v Ukraini [Metallurgists remain among the largest taxpayers in Ukraine]. www.unian.ua. https://www.unian.ua/economics/finance/metalurgi-zalishayutsya-odnimi-z-naybilshih-platnikiv-podatkiv-v-ukrajini-eksperti-novini-ukrajina-11692747.html [in Ukrainian].
  12. The statistical review of world energy. 71st edition. (2022). BP. Retrieved from https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2022-full-report.pdf.
  13. Cavaliere, P. (2019). Electrolysis of iron ores: most efficient technologies for greenhouse emissions abatement. In: Cavaliere, P. (Ed.). Clean Ironmaking and Steelmaking Processes: Efficient Technologies for Greenhouse Emissions Abatement. Springer International Publishing, pp. 555–576. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21209-4_10.
  14. DeepStateMap. (2023, June). DeepState, U.A. Retrieved from https://deepstatemap.live/en#10/47.2135/34.9901.
  15. DeSantis, D., James, B.D., Houchins, C., Saur, G., Lyubovsky, M. (2021). Cost of long-distance energy transmission by different carriers. iScience, 24 (12), 103495. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2021.103495.
  16. Devlin, A., Yang, A. (2022). Regional supply chains for decarbonising steel: energy efficiency and green premium mitigation. Energy Convers. Manag., 254, 115268. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2022.115268.
  17. Devlin, A., Kossen, J., Goldie-Jones, H., Yang, A. (2023). Global green hydrogen-based steel opportunities surrounding high quality renewable energy and iron ore deposits. Nature Communications, 14 (1), 2578. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38123-2.
  18. Resources and energy quarterly: march 2023. (2023). Department of Industry, Science and Resources. Retrieved from https://www.industry.gov.au/publications/resources-and-energy-quarterly-march-2023.
  19. Ekonomichna statystyka: natsionalni rakhunky (rizni roky). 1990-2021 [Economic statistics: National Accounts (Various Years). 1990-2021]. State Statistics Service of Ukraine. Retrieved from https://ukrstat.gov.ua/operativ/menu/menu_u/nac_r.htm [in Ukrainian].
  20. Statystychnyi shchorichnyk Ukrainy [Statistical Yearbook of Ukraine]. (2021). State Statistics Service of Ukraine. Retrieved from https://www.ukrstat.gov.ua/druk/publicat/kat_u/2022/zb/11/Yearbook_21_e.pdf [in Ukrainian].
  21. Vyrobnytstvo ta rozpodil valovoho vnutrishnoho produktu za vydamy ekonomichnoi diialnosti (rizni roky) [Production and distribution of gross domestic product by types of economic activity (Various Years)]. (2008). State Statistics Service of Ukraine. Retrieved from https://www.ukrstat.gov.ua/operativ/operativ2008/vvp/vvp_ric/arh_vtr_u.htm [in Ukrainian].
  22. European-scale project: DTEK has launched the 240 MW Pokrovska SPP. (2019). DTEK. Retrieved from https://dtek.com/en/media-center/news/proekt-evropeyskogo-masshtabu-dtek-zapustiv-pokrovsku-ses-potuzhnistyu-240-mvt/.
  23. DTEK opens wind farm in Ukraine amid war to build back greener after Russian attacks. (2023). DTEK. Retrieved from https://dtek.com/en/media-center/news/dtek-opens-wind-farm-in-ukraine-amid-war-to-build-back-greener-after-russian-attacks-/.
  24. A green deal industrial plan for the net-zero age. (2023). European Commission. Retrieved from https://commission.europa.eu/system/files/2023-02/COM_2023_62_2_EN_ACT_A%20Green%20Deal%20Industrial%20Plan%20for%20the%20Net-Zero%20Age.pdf.
  25. National report of Ukraine 2020. (2020). Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative. Retrieved from https://eiti.org/sites/default/files/attachments/en_2020_ukraine_eiti_report.pdf.
  26. Carbon price Tracker. (2023). Ember. Retrieved from https://ember-climate.org/data/data-tools/carbon-price-viewer/.
  27. Erbach, G., Foukalova´, N. (2023). Review of the EU ETS ’Fit for 55’ package. European Parliamentary Research Service. Retrieved from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2022/698890/EPRS_BRI (2022)698890_EN.pdf.
  28. ‘Let’s reach for the stars’: EU aims for green hydrogen below €2/kg by 2030. (2021). EurActiv. Retrieved from https://www.euractiv.com/section/eet/news/lets-reach-for-the-stars-eu-aims-for-green-hydrogen-below-e2-kg-by-2030/.
  29. EU ETS revision: benchmarks and CBAM free allocation phase out Impact assessment on the EU steel industry. (2021). Eurofer: The European Steel Association. Retrieved from https://www.eurofer.eu/assets/publications/position-papers/joint-statement-by-energy-intensive-sectors-on-cbam/202111_CBAM_ETS-impact_EU-steel-industry.pdf.
  30. European steel in Figures 2022. (2022). Eurofer. The European Steel Association. Retrieved from https://www.eurofer.eu/assets/publications/brochures-booklets-and-factsheets/european-steel-in-figures-2022/European-Steel-in-Figures-2022-v2.pdf.
  31. EU Statement regarding Russia’s unprovoked and unjustified military aggression against Ukraine. (2022). European Union. Retrieved from https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/eu-statement-regarding-russia%E2%80%99s-unprovoked-and-unjustified-military-aggression-against-ukraine_en.
  32. REPowerEU: joint European action for more affordable, secure and sustainable energy. (2022). European Union. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/api/files/attachment/871871/Factsheet%20-%20REPowerEU.pdf.pdf.
  33. Eurostat Manual of Supply, Use and Input-Output Tables. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. (2008). Eurostat. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3859598/5902113/KS-RA-07-013-EN.PDF.pdf/b0b3d71e-3930-4442-94be-70b36cea9b39?t=1414781402000.
  34. Gas data for non-household consumers – bi-annual data (from 2007 onwards). (2023). Eurostat. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/NRG_PC_203custom_6296695/default/table?lang=en.
  35. Fan, Z., Friedmann, S. J. (2021). Low-carbon production of iron and steel: technology options, economic assessment, and policy. Joule, 5 (4), рр. 829–862. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2021.02.018.
  36. «Ukrzaliznytsia» rozrakhovuie otrymaty 11 mlrd hrv vid pidniattia vantazhnykh taryfiv. Yaki naslidky dlia biznesu [«Ukrzaliznytsia» expects to receive UAH 11 billion from the increase in freight tariffs. What are the implications for business]. (2022, 29 June). Forbes UA. Retrieved from https://forbes.ua/inside/ukrzaliznitsya-rozrakhovue-otrimati-11-mlrd-grn-vid-pidnyattya-vantazhnikh-tarifiv-mayzhe-polovinu-zaplatyat-akhmetov-i-agrarii-yaki-naslidki-dlya-biznesu-29062022-6863 .
  37. Friedl, M., Sulla-Menashe, D. (2015). MCD12Q1 MODIS/Terra+Aqua land cover Type yearly L3 global 500m. SIN grid. NASA LP DAAC. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5067/MODIS/MCD12Q1.006.
  38. Global blast furnace Tracker. (2023). GEM. Retrieved from https://globalenergymonitor.org/projects/global-blast-furnace-tracker/.
  39. Global hydropower Tracker. (2023). GEM. Retrieved from https://globalenergymonitor.org/projects/global-hydropower-tracker/.
  40. Global nuclear power Tracker. (2023). GEM. Retrieved from https://globalenergymonitor.org/projects/global-nuclear-power-tracker/.
  41. Global steel plant Tracker. (2023). GEM. Retrieved from https://globalenergymonitor.org/projects/global-steel-plant-tracker/.
  42. Z pochatku roku tsiny na brukht zrosly na 1,7 tys. hrn – «UkrMet» [Since the beginning of the year, scrap prices have increased by UAH 1.7 thousand – «UkrMet»]. (2021). GEM. Retrieved from https://gmk.center/ua/news/z-pochatku-roku-cini-na-bruht-zrosli-na-1-7-tis-grn-ukrmet/ [in Ukrainian].
  43. Iron ore. (2023). GMK. URL: Retrieved from https://gmk.center/en/product_type/iron-ore/.
  44. Gorodnichenko, Y., Sologoub, I., Weder Di. (Eds.). (2022). Rebuilding Ukraine: Principles and policies. Paris Report 1. CEPR Press. Retrieved from https://cepr.org/publications/books-and-reports/rebuilding-ukraine-principles-and-policies.
  45. On course for large-scale production from 2025. (2022). H2 Green Steel. Retrieved from https://www.h2greensteel.com/articles/on-course-for-large-scale-production-from-2025.
  46. Hasanbeigi, A. (2022). An International benchmarking of energy and CO2 Intensities. Steel Climate Impact. Retrieved from https://www.globalefficiencyintel.com/steel-climate-impact-international-benchmarking-energy-co2-intensities.
  47. Hasanbeigi, A., Sibal, A. (2023). What is Green Steel? Definitions and sScopes from Standards, Initiatives, and Policies around the World. Global Efficiency Intelligence. Retrieved from https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5877e86f9de4bb8bce72105c/t/63c7a01f9d1a8a63a4b5a1b5/1674027071700/Whats+Green+Steel-+18Jan2023.pdf.
  48. Hersbach, H., Bell, B., Berrisford, P., Biavati, G., Hor´anyi, A., et al. (2020). ERA5 hourly data on single levels from 1940 to present. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, Vol. 146, рр. 1998-2049. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24381/cds.adbb2d47.
  49. Holmgren, W., Hansen, C., Mikofski, M. (2018). Pvlib python: a python package for modeling solar energy systems. Journal of Open Source Software, Vol. 3(29), Art. no. 884. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21105/joss.00884.
  50. Ukraine energy profile. (2021). International Energy Agency. Retrieved from https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ac51678f-5069-4495-9551-87040cb0c99d/UkraineEnergyProfile.pdf.
  51. World Energy Outlook 2022. (2022). International Energy Agency. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2022.
  52. Simplified levelised cost of competing low-carbon technologies in chemicals production. (2020). International Energy Agency. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/simplified-levelised-cost-of-competing-low-carbon-technologies-in-chemicals-production.
  53. Achieving net zero Heavy industry sectors in G7 members. (2022). International Energy Agency. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/reports/achieving-net-zero-heavy-industry-sectors-in-g7-members.
  54. Investment Guide Ukraine. (2024). Ministry of Economy of Ukraine. Kyiv, School of Economics. 240 р. Retrieved from https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/621f88db25fbf24758792dd8/666b35cf2dc77cc050e252fa_Ukraine%20Investment%20Guide%202024_compressed%20(1).pdf.
  55. Interpipe report for the united nations global Compact on the results achieved and progress in 2021. (2021). Interpipe. Retrieved from https://interpipe.biz/uploads/block-files/66ed3e5596976_2022_INTERPIPEreportfortheUnitedNations2021ENG.pdf.
  56. Kim, W., Sohn, I. (2022). Critical challenges facing low carbon steelmaking technology using hydrogen direct reduced iron. Joule, 6 (10), рр. 2228–2232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.08.010.
  57. Research of the impact on the economy of Ukraine from the introduction of CBAM by the European Union. (2021). Kyiv School of Economics. Retrieved from https://kse.ua/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/ENG_20211115-KSE_CBAM_for-publication.pdf.
  58. Kudria, S. (Ed.). (2020). Institute of Renewable Energy, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine: History, Today and Prospect. Kyiv, Institute of Renewable Energy of NAS of Ukraine. 113 p. Retrieved from https://www.ive.org.ua/wp-content/uploads/ENG-book_30.11.2020.pdf.
  59. Kudria, S., Ivanchenko, I., Tuchynskyi, B., Petrenko, K., Karmazin, O., Riepkin, O. (2021). Resource potential for wind-hydrogen power in Ukraine. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 46 (1), рр. 157-168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.09.211.
  60. Kulu, H., Christison, S., Liu, C., Mikolai, J. (2023). The war, refugees, and the future of Ukraine’s population. Population, Space and Place, 29 (4), e2656. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.2656.
  61. Leontief, W. (1966). Input-output economics. Oxford University Press. Retrieved from https://books.google.co.uk/books/about/Input_output_Economics.html?id=hBDEXblq6HsC&redir_esc=y.
  62. Leontief, W. (2008). Input–output analysis. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. (рр. 1–8). Macmillan UK. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_1072-2.
  63. Lopez, G., Farfan, J., Breyer, C. (2022). Trends in the global steel industry: Evolutionary projections and defossilisation pathways through power-to-steel. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 375, Art. no. 134182. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.134182.
  64. Lopez, G., Galimova, T., Fasihi, M., Bogdanov, D., Breyer, C. (2023). Towards defossilised steel: supply chain options for a green European steel industry. Energy, Vol. 273, Art. no. 127236. DOI: http://.org/10.1016/ j.energy.2023. 127236.
  65. McCann, P. (2013). Modern Urban and Regional Economics. Oxford University Press.
  66. Shchorichnyi natsionalnyi inventaryzatsiinyi zvit dlia podannia zghidno z Ramkovoiu konventsiieiu OON zi zmi-ny klimatu ta Kiotskym protokolom [Annual national Inventory report for Submission under the united nations framework convention on climate change and the Kyoto Protocol]. (2023). Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources of Ukraine. Retrieved from https://mepr.gov.ua/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Kadastr_2023.pdf [in Ukrainian].
  67. Sustainability report 2020. (2020). Metinvest. Retrieved from https://metinvestholding.com/upload/sr-2020/assets/pdf/Metinvest_2020_SR-Eng-Web.pdf.
  68. Steel transition strategies. Mission Possible Partnership. Retrieved from https://missionpossiblepartnership.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Making-Net-Zero-Steel-possible.pdf.
  69. Munroe, D. K., Biles, J. J. (2005). Regional Science. In: Kempf-Leonard, K. (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, Vol. 3, pp. 325–335. Elsevier Inc.
  70. Mykhnenko, V. (2020). Causes and consequences of the war in eastern Ukraine: an economic geography perspective. Europe-Asia Studies, 72 (3), рр. 528–560. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09668136.2019.1684447.
  71. Infliatsiinyi zvit [Inflation report]. (2023). National Bank of Ukraine. Retrieved from https://bank.gov.ua/admin_uploads/article/IR_2023-Q1.pdf?v=4 [in Ukrainian].
  72. Ukraine’s national recovery plan. (2022). National recovery Council. Retrieved from https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/621f88db25fbf24758792dd8/62c166751fcf41105380a733_NRC%20Ukraine%27s%20Recovery%20Plan%20blueprint_ENG.pdf.
  73. Nayak-Luke, R., Forbes, C., Cesaro, Z., Bañares-Alcántara, R., Rouwenhorst, K. (2021). Chapter 8-techno-economic aspects of production, storage and distribution of ammonia. In: Valera-Medina, A., Banares-Alcantara, R. (Eds.). Techno-Economic Challenges of Green Ammonia as an Energy Vector. (pp. 191–207). Academic Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820560-0.00008-4.
  74. Pro vstanovlennia taryfiv na rozpodil elek-trychnoi enerhii ta taryfiv na postachannia elektrychnoi enerhii PrAT «UKRHIDROENERHO»: Postanova Natsionalnoi komisii, shcho zdiisniuie derzhavne rehuliuvannia u sferakh enerhetyky ta komunalnykh posluh Ukrainy, vid 12 hrudnia 2018 r. №1902 [On establishing tariffs for the distribution of electricity and tariffs for the supply of electricity by PJSC “UKRGIDROENERGO”: Resolution of the National Commission for State Regulation in the Energy and Utilities Sectors of Ukraine, dated December 12, 2018 No. 1902]. Retrieved from https://www.nerc.gov.ua/acts/pro-vstanovlennya-tarifiv-na-vidpusk-elektrichnoi-energii-prat-ukrgidroenergo-na-2019-rik [in Ukrainian].
  75. Pro vstanovlennia taryfiv na rozpodil elek-trychnoi enerhii ta taryfiv na postachannia elektrychnoi enerhii NEK «UKRENERHO»: Postanova Natsionalnoi komisii, shcho zdiisniuie derzhavne rehuliuvannia u sferakh enerhetyky ta komunalnykh posluh Ukrainy, vid 21.12.2022 r. №1788 [On establishing tariffs for the distribution of electricity and tariffs for the supply of electricity by NPC “UKRENERGO”: Resolution of the National Commission for State Regulation in the Energy and Utilities Sectors of Ukraine, dated December 21, 2022 No. 1788]. Retrieved from https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/rada/show/v1788874-22?lang=en#Text [in Ukrainian].
  76. Normann, F., Skagestad, R., Biermann, M., Wolf, J., Mathisen, A. (2019). The CO2stCap Project – Reducing the Cost of Carbon Capture in Process Industry. Chalmers University of Technology. Retrieved from https://www.sintef.no/contentassets/39f1dfcc7a8040358 0f5f784e16484a2/final-report-co2stcap.pdf.
  77. Effective carbon rates 2021. (2021). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/tax/tax-policy/effective-carbon-rates-2021-highlights-brochure.pdf.
  78. Input-output analytical tables: guidance for use. (2022). UK Office for National Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/nationalaccounts/supplyandusetables/articles/inputoutputanalyticaltables/guidanceforuse.
  79. Otto, A., Robinius, M., Grube, T., Schiebahn, S., Praktiknjo, A., Stolten, D. (2017). Power-to-Steel: reducing CO2 through the integration of renewable energy and hydrogen into the German steel industry. Energies, 10 (4), 451. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en10040451.
  80. Pauliuk, S., Wang, T., Müller, D. (2013). Steel all over the world: Estimating in-use stocks of iron for 200 countries. Resources Conservation and Recycling, 71, рр. 22–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.11.008.
  81. Pimm, A. J., Cockerill, T. T., Gale, W. F. (2021). Energy system requirements of fossil-free steelmaking using hydrogen direct reduction. Journal of Cleaner Production, 312, 127665. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.127665.
  82. World Database on Protected areas (WDPA). (2023). Protected Planet. Retrieved from https://www.protectedplanet.net/en/thematic-areas/wdpa?tab=WDPA.
  83. Salmon, N., Bañares-Alcántara, R. (2021). Impact of grid connectivity on cost and location of green ammonia production: Australia as a case study. Energy & Environmental Science, Vol. 14 (73), рр. 6655–6671. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D1EE02582A.
  84. Salmon, N., Bañares-Alcántara, R. (2022). A global, spatially granular techno-economic analysis of offshore green ammonia production. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 367, Art. no. 133045. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133045.
  85. Shatokha, V. (2016). The sustainability of the iron and steel industries in Ukraine: challenges and opportunities. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, 2 (2), рр. 106–115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-015-0036-2.
  86. Shatokha, V. (2022). Modeling of the effect of hydrogen injection on blast furnace operation and carbon dioxide emissions. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials, 29 (10), рр. 1851–1861. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12613-022-2474-8.
  87. Shatokha, V., Matukhno, E., Belokon, K., Shmatkov, G. (2020). Potential Means to reduce CO2 emissions of iron and steel industry in Ukraine using best available technologies. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy, 6 (3), рр. 451–462. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-020-00289-0.
  88. Ports. (2023). Shipnext. Retrieved from https://shipnext.com/port/.
  89. HYBRIT: milestone reached – pilot facility for hydrogen storage up and running. (2022). SSAB. Retrieved from https://www.ssab.com/en-gb/news/2022/09/hybrit-milestone-reached–pilot-facility-for-hydrogen-storage-up-and-running.
  90. Sundqvist, M., Biermann, M., Normann, F., Larsson, M., Nilsson, L. (2018). Evaluation of low and high level integration options for carbon capture at an integrated iron and steel mill. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, Vol. 77, рр. 27–36. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2018.07.008.
  91. Swalec, C., Grigsby-Schulte, A. (2023). Pedal to the metal. Global Energy Monitor. Retrieved from https://globalenergymonitor.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/GEM_SteelPlants2023.pdf.
  92. Toktarova, A., Walter, V., Göransson, L., Johnsson, F. (2022). Interaction between electrified steel production and the north European electricity system. Applied Energy, 310, 118584. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.118584.
  93. Trollip, H., McCall, B., Bataille, C. (2022). How green primary iron production in South Africa could help global decarbonization. Climate Policy, 1–12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2021.2024123.
  94. Gillula, J. W. (1982). The Reconstructed 1972 Input-Output Tables for Eight Soviet Republics. Foreign Economic Report No. 19. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.
  95. Vogl, V., Åhman, M., Nilsson, L. J. (2018). Assessment of hydrogen direct reduction for fossil-free steelmaking. Journal of Cleaner Production, 203, рр. 736–745. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.08.279.
  96. Wang, P., Ryberg, M., Yang, Y., Feng, K., Kara, S., Hauschild, M., Chen, W.-Q. (2021). Efficiency stagnation in global steel production urges joint supply- and demand-side mitigation efforts. Nature Communication, Art. no. 2066. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-22245-6.
  97. Wang, C., Walsh, S., Weng, Z., Haynes, M., Summerfield, D., Feitz, A. (2023). Green steel: Synergies between the Australian iron ore industry and the production of green hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 48, Issue 83, рр. 32277-32293. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.05.041.
  98. Way, R., Ives, M. C., Mealy, P., Farmer, J. D. (2022). Empirically grounded technology forecasts and the energy transition. Joule, 6 (9), рр. 2057–2082. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joule.2022.08.009.
  99. Technical potential for offshore wind in Ukraine. (2020). The World Bank Group. Retrieved from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/709391586844502062/pdf/Technical-Potential-for-Offshore-Wind-in-Ukraine-Map.pdf.
  100. Commodity price data (the Pink sheet). (2022). The World Bank Group. Retrieved from https://www.world bank.org/en/research/commodity-markets.
  101. Ukraine rapid damage and needs assessment : February 2022-February 2023. (2023). The World Bank Group, the Government of Ukraine, the European Union services, and the United Nations. Retrieved from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099184503212328877/pdf/P1801740d1177f03c0ab180057556615497.pdf.
  102. Median construction times for reactors since 1981. (2020). World Nuclear Association. Retrieved from https://www.world-nuclear.org/gallery/world-nuclear-performance-report-gallery/median-construction-times-for-reactors-since-1981.aspx.
  103. Decommissioning nuclear facilities. (2022). World Nuclear Association. Retrieved from https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/nuclear-fuel-cycle/nuclear-wastes/decommissioning-nuclear-facilities.aspx#:~:text=Generally%20speaking%2C%20early%20nuclear%20plants,to%2060%20year%20operating%20life.
  104. World steel in Figures. (2021). World Steel Association. Retrieved from https://worldsteel.org/wp-content/uploads/2021-World-Steel-in-Figures.pdf.
  105. World steel in Figures. (2022). World Steel Association. Retrieved from https://worldsteel.org/wp-content/uploads/World-Steel-in-Figures-2022-1.pdf.
  106. Fact sheet: steel and raw materials. (2023). World Steel Association. Retrieved from https://worldsteel.org/wp-content/uploads/Fact-sheet-raw-materials-2023.pdf.
  107. Zagoruichyk, A., Savytskyi, O., Kopytsia, I., O’Callaghan, B. (2023). The Green Phoenix Framework: Climate-positive Plan for Economic Recovery of Ukraine. Smith School Working Paper 23-03. Retrieved from https://www.smithschool.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2023-06/The-Green-Phoenix-Framework-a-climate-positive-plan-for-economic-recovery-in-Ukraine.pdf.

Full Text (.pdf)

Received: 09.04.2025
Accepted: 12.05.2025
Published: 19.06.2025